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Bundy suggests “Otto-Karl Werckmeister was closer to the mark in regarding intricate patterns, at least in religious contexts, as powerful tools to focus reflection upon the multiple layers of meaning in the text, as a guide for conduct, life, and salvation.” (Bundy 198) Werchmeister’s observation was made specifically in connection to illuminated Gospels where text and images are combined. In a way this could also be said of the scripture crosses that contain biblical images. But many of the Irish High Crosses have only abstract design. Here the patterns themselves may point to meanings such as those suggested above or to the interpretations of Derek Bryce, author of Symbolism of the Celtic Cross. Two quotes from Bryce offer his perspective based on his research in mysticism and comparative religion. His primary thesis is that standing stones and crosses are symbols of the world-axis, the connection between Heaven and Earth. (Bryce p. 11) Concerning Plaitwork, he writes: “the basic symbolism is that of ‘the great cosmic loom of the universe,’ but it is important also to note that there are no loose ends, and the symbol is also one of continuity of the spirit throughout existence.” (Bryce p. 60) The Celtic people of the Iron Age (beginning about 500 BCE in Ireland) and the early Christian era (beginning about 432 CE and ending with the arrival of the Normans in 1169 CE) certainly understood all aspects of life as interconnected. They had a sense of close relationship with the natural world, including plants, animals, earth, sky and water. They also looked beyond the artificial barrier of time. Past, present, and future were closely bound in eternity. In addition, the spirit world was experienced as very near. They may well have thought about interlace as symbolic of the seamless fabric of life as Bryce suggests. Concerning knotwork, Bryce writes: “Here the symbolism is of the knots which bind the soul to the world. Like the Gordian knot cut by Alexander the Great, these knots must be cut or broken for the soul to become free to begin the spiritual journey.” (Bryce 61) We find ourselves facing many knotty problems through the course of life. In some cases we can solve the puzzle and untie the knot. In other cases, like Alexander we may feel the need to cut ourselves free as Bryce suggests. |
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How did the Celtic people view these knots given their sense of harmony with the natural world? We offer another possible perspective on the knot. We tend to think of Celtic knots as a more complex and beautiful expressions of the connectedness of all things, and of the ever-twisting or ever-changing journey of life. With this understanding, the goal is not to break the knots but to trust in the unity of all life, to follow the path with the same confidence you would walk a labyrinth, knowing that the path leads inevitably to the center, to the Holy, to the Ground of our Being. In this case, the journey is more important than the destination. Fret work or Key-patterns: “The elementary form of the fret is a continuous line or band lying straight between certain points at which it is sharply bent in such a manner that no part crosses another.” (Crawford 1926, 34)
Above are a number of illustrations Henry Crawford offers of the forms that Fret work can take. (Crawford 1926, 39) Examples D – J are found on Irish High Crosses.
The image below, showing a section of the circle from the North Cross at Ahenny (Co. Tipperary) is described as “A key pattern of simple form which fills the segments of the ring. The space is divided into square compartments, in each of which is a pair of diagonal L-shaped keys springing from opposite angles and connected to the remaining angles by extra bars.” (Crawford 1926, 38) |
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Ahenny (Co. Tipperary) North Cross, west face. Photo by Barney McLaughlin 2008
Zoomorphic Designs: As the name suggests, zoomorphic designs have animals in them. Any of the designs we have considered thus far can become zoomorphic by “modifying the terminal portions so as to represent the heads, feet, and tails of animals.” (Crawford 1926, 46) There is great variety in these images. Some depict fantastic representations of imaginary animals. Others depict real animals in a stylized way.
Monasterboice (Co. Louth) Muiredach’s cross, south face , on the left. Ahenny North (Co. Tipperary) west face on the right. Photos by Barney McLaughlin and Mady Fraser 2006-2008.
In the image on the left above, we have what Richardson and Scarry refer to as inhabited vine-scroll. (Richardson & Scarry 45) The base of the vine can be found in the center of the bottom of the design. The branches of the vine move upward and outward in sweeping spirals. In each of the six circles formed by the vine the branch terminates in the figure of a bird. Crawford describes the design on the right in this way: “A square panel of four men placed symmetrically with regard to the centre, and interlaced in a bold and effective manner… The idea of four human figures thus interlaced is an early and favourite one . . . It has been suggested that this close interlacing of human figures is intended to symbolize the brotherhood and interdependence of Mankind.” (Crawford 1926, 50) |
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Figural or Pictorial representation: A large set of carvings that depict scenes from the Bible, contemporary life, or in some cases ancient mythological figures are included in this category. I have divided these into three categories: images from the Hebrew Scriptures, from the Christian Scriptures, and non-biblical images. We will briefly survey each category. First, I want to address briefly the version of the Bible that was in use in the western church in the early fifth century. This was the Bible as it was introduced to the Irish. The Bible in the fifth century CE: In 807 CE a scribe of Armagh named Ferdomnach supervised the production of what is now known as the Book of Armagh. This volume contained the story of Patrick, the Gospels and Epistles and a life of St Martin of Tours. “This [book] is revered as being the oldest complete Irish copy of St Jerome’s Vulgate and brings us into contact with the Gospels and Epistles as read in the Early Irish Church.” (Slavin 90, 94, 101) The Vulgate was commissioned by the Pope and completed in about 405 CE (before the arrival of Saint Patrick). It became the standard Latin translation of the Bible. This was, almost certainly, the Bible that was first introduced into Ireland. In the early centuries following its completion, there were very few complete copies. In addition, because it was written in Latin, only those who were well educated would have been able to read the text for themselves. This underlines the importance of the monasteries as educational institutions that preserved, produced and proclaimed the stories and message of the bible. It also suggests a possible educational role for the so called “scripture crosses” (crosses that contained pictorial images from the Hebrew and Christian scriptures). Viewing these scripture crosses would bring to mind for the literate and non-literate the stories of the bible and to some degree their interpretation or meaning. Images from the Hebrew Scriptures: The majority of High Cross scholars would agree with Francoise Henry that most Hebrew scripture scenes on the crosses were selected “either as manifestations of God’s help to the faithful or as ‘types’ or ‘prefigurations’ of an event in the life of Christ.” (Henry 1964, 35) As the early Christians sought to understand who Jesus was and the significance of his life, death and resurrection, they turned to the pages of the Hebrew Scriptures. |
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It might be helpful to note that the Hebrew texts were, of course, the only scriptures available to the Christians of the first three centuries CE. The earliest of the documents now contained in the New Testament or Christian scriptures were letters of the Apostle Paul. The first of these was probably written about fifty CE. While all or most of the books now in the New Testament had been written by 100 CE or shortly after, it was not until 367 CE that we find the first list of New Testament books that is identical with those in our New Testament today. In the Hebrew Scriptures, many Christians then and now identify passages and stories in which they see references to Jesus. Here is the reasoning for this method of interpretation according to William Barclay. “It was a Jewish belief that all Scripture had four meanings – Peshat, the simple meaning which could be seen at the first reading; Remaz, the suggested meaning and the truth which the passage suggested to the seeking mind; Derush, the meaning when all the resources of investigation, linguistic, historical, literary, archeological, had been brought to bear upon the passage; Sod, the inner and allegorical meaning. . . . Now of all the meanings Sod, the inner, mystical meaning was the most important. The Jews were, therefore, skilled in finding inner meanings in Scripture. It was thus not difficult for them [the Jews who were the first Christians] to develop a technique of Old Testament interpretation which discovered Jesus Christ all over the Old Testament.” (Barclay, 45) In this way the Hebrew Scriptures were baptized by early Christians. “For example, Isaac carrying the wood for his sacrifice was paralleled with Christ carrying his cross.” (Henry 1964, 38; text from Genesis 22:1-19) |
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There are many examples of Old Testament scenes on the High Crosses, but allow the following few to suffice to make the point.
Monasterboice (Co. Louth) Muiredach’s Cross and Moone (Co. Kildare). Photos by Barney McLaughlin and Mady Fraser 2006-2008.
The image on the left is described by Peter Harbison. “Adam and Eve are shown under the arcaded branches of the apple tree, its fruit falling down behind their backs. The serpent coils its way up the tree and turns to Eve on the left, whose right hand proffers the apple to Adam while the left hand hides her shame. Adam, bearded, stretches forth his left hand to receive the apple while using his right hand to hide his shame.” (Harbison 1992, 143; text in Genesis 3) In this case there is a contrast between the first Adam and Christ as the new Adam. “For since death came through a human being, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being. For as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ.” (NRSV 1 Corinthians 15:21-22) The image of the Fall served as a reminder of the problem of human sin and at the same time foreshadowed God’s solution to that problem in Jesus Christ. The image to the right shows us Daniel in the Lion’s Den (text in Daniel 6). There are three lions to |
