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                                               The Time Period of the High Crosses 

Clonmacnois County Offaly Ireland

Knowing the physical characteristics of the Irish High Cross (with all of the variety we have seen above) will not guarantee a confident identification of an authentic Irish High Cross.  Cemeteries surround the ruined buildings of many of the ancient Irish monasteries, and many of the grave markers look like the ancient Irish High Crosses (some of these are several centuries old, some as recent as yesterday).   Clonmacnois in County Offlay offers one example.  The three visible crosses are all in the style of the Irish High Crosses but are not Irish High Crosses.

Adding to the problem of identifying Irish High Crosses is the fact that not all scholarly lists of High Crosses are identical.  The most complete listing is that of Dr. Peter Harbison, High Crosses of Ireland (1992).  This is a monumental three volume work that addresses nearly every aspect of High Cross scholarship and has an impressive number of photographic plates.  One example of the variation in lists will suffice.  Richardson and Scarry in their book, An Introduction to Irish High Crosses (1990), list only one High Cross related to the monastic sites at Glendalough in County Wicklow.  Harbison, on the other hand, tells us that Glendalough has more crosses than any other site in the country.  In his text he discusses the three most notable examples.

Glendalough Crosses

Peter Harbison describes three crosses at the Glendalough monastic site in County Wicklow.  Imediate right:  the Market cross now located in the Visitor's Center.  Center rights:  a very plain high cross located in the Monastic City. Far right:  the High Cross at Saint Reefert's Church near the upper lake.

Glendalough Market Cross County Wicklow Ireland      Glendalough High Cross Monastic City County Wicklow Ireland      Glendalouigh Saint Reefert's High Cross County Wicklow Ireland

The solution to this problem is that the Irish High Crosses were carved during a specific period of time.  Franciose Henery in her book High Crosses (1964), outlines a possible Chronology of the crosses, which with changes in style, were carved between the 8th and 12thcenturies; a period of about 500 years.  For more information on the process of dating the crosses see Dating the High Crosses.

Chapter Two:  Iconography or Symbolism of the High Crosses 

           Our interest in the symbolism of the Irish High Crosses stems from a 2004 visit to Scotland.  On that trip we searched for Pictish standing stones.  Pict was the name given to the early, pre-Christian, Celtic inhabitants of much of what is now Scotland.  These Pictish standing stones come from both the pre-Christian and the early Christian history of Scotland.  As seen below, they typically have a collection of Pictish symbols carved on them.  In the early Christian era these are combined with crosses. These Pictish symbols have defied interpretation.  It was pondering the meaning of the Pictish symbols that fascinated us with the symbolic meaning of the carving on many of the Irish High Crosses.

As we will see below, there is a bit more clarity in dealing with the High Cross iconography than there is in dealing the Pictish symbols.  So here we go.

The Rodney Stone (Moray area, Scotland) has a decorative cross on one side [left], flanked by other carvings.  On the reverse side [right] is a collection of Pictish symbols.  This stone has been dated to the 9thcentury.  The transition from the pre-Christian to the Christian era is marked by the appearance of crosses on the slabs along with Pictish symbols, as seen above.  George and Isabel Henderson provide an excellent study of the meaning and function of Pictish art in The Art of the Picts:  Sculpture and Metalwork in Early Medieval Scotland, 2004.

As noted in chapter one, there is symbolic meaning in the shape of the cross itself, in the shape of the base, in the ring around the head of many of the Irish High Crosses and in the caps that appear on some of the crosses.  In addition most, but not all, of the crosses have at least some carving on them.  The carvings have their own symbolic or iconographic meanings.  It is our intention in this chapter to discuss the primary types of carvings found on the Irish High Crosses and some of their possible interpretations.

In general, the cross carvings can be said to be either designs (abstract or geometric), or figural representations.  There is great variety in each of these two categories.

Geometric Designs 

Henry S. Crawford identifies the following types of geometric patterns in Celtic art:  spiral patterns, star patterns, interlaced patterns, fret patterns, and geometric symbols.  (Crawford 1926)

Spiral Patterns: Crawford tells us that spiral patterns are of two types:  C and S curves.  Using these two types alone or in combination the artist can create an incredible number of different designs.  (Crawford 1926, 12-19)

     

The left image above was found at boards.elsaelsa.com/topic/the-scorpio-search-...  August 2010  Remaining three images found at www.stone-circles.org.uk/celtic/christian2.htm August 2010) 

The left image above is a primitive pattern used in the Neolithic as well as Celtic periods of Irish history.  The other three can all be found in the Book of Kells, a 9th century Illuminated manuscript of the four Gospels.  The infinite variety of design offered by the spiral patterns is clear from these examples.  In all of these cases both C and S curves are easily identified.  Spiral patterns were used in a variety of settings including as borders, in manuscripts, metalwork and carving.

Spirals are generally recognized as one of the oldest of symbols.  Whatever their original meaning, it was certainly spiritual in nature.  These symbols are found in Neolithic sites around the world.  The image below is the curb stone at the entry to the Newgrange Neolithic passage tomb, dating from about 3500 BCE.  Above to the left the triple spiral is also found at Newgrange.  

[Newgrange passage tomb, Co. Meath.   Close-up of part of the passage stone.  Image found at www.public-domain-image.com/miscellaneous/sli...  August 2010]




A spiral has movement.  We might think of a spiral as moving in toward or out from the center.  Spiritually the center has often been thought of as the Holy, God, the Ground of our Being.  As we spiral in, we move deeper into relationship with the Holy.  As we spiral out we move from our divine source into service to others.  The inward and outward dimensions of spirituality are in constant dynamic tension.  Both are necessary to the spiritual journey.  In Christian scripture, for example, we see this in the life of Jesus.  He alternated time alone with God and time in service through teaching, healing, miracles, and so on.  An excellent example of the spiral on a High Cross can be seen above [left].  This cross is located at Killamere in County Kilkenny.


Star Patterns:  Star patterns are created by the intersecting of curves or circles.  They are limited in variety and Crawford tells us they are “a minor division of Celtic ornament.”  (Crawford 1926 20)   The modern design to the right is a tattoo.  

Image found at startattoopictures.blogspot.com/2008/12/celti...  August 2010




The star pattern is very rare on Irish High Crosses, appearing only twice according to Richardson and Scarry.  (Richardson and Scarry 29-49)  One of these is on the Decorated or West cross at Kilkieran (Co. Kilkenny).  There are two stars on the north face of the base.  They are combined with other decoration, mostly interlace.  The photo below does not show the star patterns clearly, but it does serve to demonstrate just how worn many of the High Crosses are.  The star patterns are located in the lower corners of the left side of the base, and so are obscured by lichen and by wear.

The other example is on a partial cross head at a site known variously as Ardane and Templeneiry (Co. Tipperary).  Peter Harbison describes the central star as follows:  “there is a marigold pattern in the centre, and the ring is decorated with interlocking angular ‘S-shapes’.”  (Harbison 1992 volume 1, 19)





Interlaced Patterns: Crawford tells us that interlaced “patterns consist of bands crossing each other alternately over and under and present two principle classes – plaits and knots.  In the plaits each band passes through the pattern from side to side before turning back, but in knotted patterns the bands frequently turn back in the body of the design.” (Crawford 1926, 23)  The difference is clearly seen in the two book covers below.  You will note that Cheryl Samuel, the writer and artist, uses the term cutwork rather than knotwork.  Images found at ravenstail.com/store/dvd-booklets/ August 2010

 Plaitwork:  Plaitwork in carving is almost certainly an imitation of weaving as can be clearly seen in the image on the left.  It is found on some of the High Crosses, including the west cross at Kilkieran, (Co. Kilkenny) as seen in the photo below [left].  This carving is on the south face of the base of the cross.



Knotwork:  Celtic knotwork is related to plait work.  In this case, however, the patterns have the potential for much greater variety.  There are classes of knotwork based on the general shape of the piece.  Crawford writes “Well marked classes are pointed, triangular and circular knotwork, the first and third of which are very characteristic of Irish monuments.”  (Crawford 1926, 25)  Peter Harbison describes the upper part of the shaft and the head of the South Cross at Ahenny (below) as being decorated with “two-strand interlacing, regular on the shaft but more irregular on the head.”  (Harbison 1992, 14)

The Meaning of Interlaced Patterns:  Mildred Bundy reminds us that “The original iconographic meanings of Insular interlace patterns remain enigmatic.”  (Bundy 197)  She goes on to say that interpretations have varied widely including, “’a stylized representation of running water’, the river Jordan, an emblem of the Trinity, in the case of triquetra knots, as ‘a symbol of continuity’; and as an apotropaic or amuletic device.” (Bundy 197)    Each of these interpretations could certainly fit the interlaced carvings on Irish High Crosses.

Bundy suggests  “Otto-Karl Werckmeister was closer to the mark in regarding intricate patterns, at least in religious contexts, as powerful tools to focus reflection upon the multiple layers of meaning in the text, as a guide for conduct, life, and salvation.”  (Bundy 198)    Werchmeister’s observation was made specifically in connection to illuminated Gospels where text and images are combined.  In a way this could also be said of the scripture crosses that contain biblical images.  But many of the Irish High Crosses have only abstract design.  Here the patterns themselves may point to meanings such as those suggested above or to the interpretations of Derek Bryce, author of Symbolism of the Celtic Cross.

Two quotes from Bryce offer his perspective based on his research in mysticism and comparative religion.  His primary thesis is that standing stones and crosses are symbols of the world-axis, the connection between Heaven and Earth.  (Bryce p. 11)  Concerning Plaitwork, he writes:  “the basic symbolism is that of ‘the great cosmic loom of the universe,’ but it is important also to note that there are no loose ends, and the symbol is also one of continuity of the spirit throughout existence.”  (Bryce p. 60)

The Celtic people of the Iron Age (beginning about 500 BCE in Ireland) and the early Christian era (beginning about 432 CE and ending with the arrival of the Normans in 1169 CE) certainly understood all aspects of life as interconnected.  They had a sense of close relationship with the natural world, including plants, animals, earth, sky and water.  They also looked beyond the artificial barrier of time.  Past, present, and future were closely bound in eternity.  In addition, the spirit world was experienced as very near.  They may well have thought about interlace as symbolic of the seamless fabric of life as Bryce suggests.

Concerning knotwork, Bryce writes: “Here the symbolism is of the knots which bind the soul to the world.  Like the Gordian knot cut by Alexander the Great, these knots must be cut or broken for the soul to become free to begin the spiritual journey.”  (Bryce 61)  We find ourselves facing many knotty problems through the course of life.  In some cases we can solve the puzzle and untie the knot.  In other cases, like Alexander we may feel the need to cut ourselves free as Bryce suggests.

How did the Celtic people view these knots given their sense of harmony with the natural world?  We offer another possible perspective on the knot.  We tend to think of Celtic knots as a more complex and beautiful expressions of the connectedness of all things, and of the ever-twisting or ever-changing journey of life.  With this understanding, the goal is not to break the knots but to trust in the unity of all life, to follow the path with the same confidence you would walk a labyrinth, knowing that the path leads inevitably to the center, to the Holy, to the Ground of our Being.  In this case, the journey is more important than the destination.

 

 Barney McLaughlin 2012